Operational Amplifiers

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What is an Operational Amplifier?

 

An operational amplifier (op amp) is an analog circuit block that takes a differential voltage input and produces a single-ended voltage output.

 

Op amps usually have three terminals: two high-impedance inputs and a low-impedance output port. The inverting input is denoted with a minus (-) sign, and the non-inverting input uses a positive (+) sign. Operational amplifiers work to amplify the voltage differential between the inputs, which is useful for a variety of analog functions including signal chain, power, and control applications.

 

Operational Amplifier Clasifications

 

There are four ways to classify operational amplifiers:

  • Voltage amplifiers take voltage in and produce a voltage at the output.
  • Current amplifiers receive a current input and produce a current output.
  • Transconductance amplifiers convert a voltage input to a current output.
  • Transresistance amplifiers convert a current input and produces a voltage output.
 

Because most op amps are used for voltage amplification, this article will focus on voltage amplifiers.

 

Operational Amplifiers: Key Characteristics and Parameters

 

There are many different important characteristics and parameters related to op amps (see Figure 1). These characteristics are described in greater detail below.

Figure 1: Operational Amplifier Schematic

Figure 1: Operational Amplifier Schematic

Open-loop gain

Open-loop gain: The open-loop gain (“A” in Figure 1) of an operational amplifier is the measure of the gain achieved when there is no feedback implemented in the circuit. This means the feedback path, or loop, is open. An open-loop gain often must be exceedingly large (10,000+) to be useful in itself, except with voltage comparators.

 

Voltage comparators compare the input terminal voltages. Even with small voltage differentials, voltage comparators can drive the output to either the positive or negative rails. High open-loop gains are beneficial in closed-loop configurations, as they enable stable circuit behaviors across temperature, process, and signal variations.

Input impedance

Another important characteristic of op amps is that they generally have high input impedance (“ZIN” in Figure 1). Input impedance is measured between the negative and positive input terminals, and its ideal value is infinity, which minimizes loading of the source. (In reality, there is a small current leakage.) Arranging the circuitry around an operational amplifier may significantly alter the effective input impedance for the source, so external components and feedback loops must be carefully configured. It is important to note that input impedance is not solely determined by the input DC resistance. Input capacitance can also influence circuit behavior, so that must be taken into consideration as well.

Output impedance

An operational amplifier ideally has zero output impedance (“ZOUT” in Figure 1). However, the output impedance typically has a small value, which determines the amount of current it can drive, and how well it can operate as a voltage buffer.

Frequency response and bandwidth (BW)

An ideal op amp would have an infinite bandwidth (BW), and would be able to maintain a high gain regardless of signal frequency. However, all operational amplifiers have a finite bandwidth, generally called the “-3dB point,” where the gain begins to roll as frequency increases. The gain of the amplifier then decreases at a rate of -20dB/decade while the frequency increases. Op amps with a higher BW have improved performance because they maintain higher gains at higher frequencies; however, this higher gain results in larger power consumption or increased cost.

Figure 2: Operational Amplifier Open-Loop Frequency Response Curve

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